Autistic Spectrum Disorder And Offending Behaviour Psychology Essay

sick Spectrum swage And Offending Behaviour Psychology EssaySpeculation is evident inwardly some(prenominal)(prenominal) familiar media and scientific literature regarding a possible association in the consanguinity mingled with ill Spectrum illness and pique deportment. The possible presence of anti tender and savage behaviour in a sub-sample of several(prenominal)s with Asperger syndrome has been of full(prenominal) elicit to twain psychological investigate and the familiar overt. The query re construeed in spite of appearance this reckon suggests that people with sick spectrum swages atomic number 18 potentially over-represented within the sorry justice formation. and an accu tempo prevalence of sick Spectrum throw out of kilter and Asperger Syndrome both within the general population and the criminal justice system is yet to be established as findings between studies atomic number 18 varied. It has been suggested that an individual with ill Spect rum inconvenience oneself who has offend behaviour will be to a greater extent akinly to burden violent, versed or arson-related crime however at that place is limited research to gestate this. to boot it does appear that certain characteristics such as co-morbid psychiatricalal symptoms atomic number 18 important risk component parts openingDebbaudt (2004) portrayd how individuals with autistic Spectrum affection are seven times to a greater extent(prenominal) presumable to experience concern with the criminal justice system than the general population. Howlin (2004) argues that the perceived link between ill Spectrum unhinge and pique behaviour can be explained by sensational media reporting. Specific stories have highlighted the Asperger syndrome status of offenders in their reports of crime. However the apparent association with pique has been generated by sensationalised, unsubstantiated in diagnostic harm , media reports. News headlines such as ill Boy ki lled baby brother, Apergers Boy locked up for Rape and A 15 course-old anthropoid child with Aspergers Syndrome ahs been locked up for an indeterminate period for raping an 8 year-old boy and photographing the attack can be extremely disadvantageous to peoples perceptions of ASD (BBC News, 2001, BBC News, 2007a, Birmingham Post 2007).The purpose of this article is to review what literature is available relating to ill Spectrum distract and Offending Behaviour. specifically this article will review what is meant by Autistic Spectrum illness, the prevalence of Autistic Spectrum perturbation within the guilty Justice System, prevalence of offend behaviour in offenders with Autistic Spectrum disquiet, the characteristics of Autistic Spectrum Disorder that might move over individuals more open to pique and the types of crime nigh associated with the disorder. Additionally on that point will be a focus on the relevant treatment and policy implications for clinicians and su pport round working with this unique population.In order to position all known studies investigating the descent between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour a search was conducted of the infobases Psych Info, Academic Search Complete and Google Scholar using the key terms Autis* and Crim*, Asperg* and Offen* within the parameters of 1985 to current issues. A search was as well as conducted regarding News and popular media sites using the key linguistic process of Autism, Asperger, offend/offending and Crime. All of the studies are organised in evade 1.Defining Autistic Spectrum Disorders earlier examining prevalence rates it is important to define what is meant by Autistic Spectrum Disorder. In the Diagnostic and Statistical manual(a) of Mental Disorders ( DSM-IV) (APA, 1994) categories of pervasive develop kind disorders (PDD) are autistic disorder, Asperger Syndrome and pervasive develop noetic disorder not other than specified (PDD-NOS). The criteria (DSM-I V) for Autistic Spectrum Disorder include a core triad of hurts. These are impairments in accessible interaction, social communication and social imagination including restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behaviour, interests and activities. at that place is variance in diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome between DSM-IV and ICD-10.The term Autistic Spectrum Disorder is widely accepted in research and literature. The humor of the autistic spectrum is clinically useful as it illustrates the variation in symptomatology both among and within individually diagnostic category. This range can include mild to precise severe symptoms in each of the areas of impairment that reason Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Those on the write down track downing end of the spectrum, such as those with classic autism, whitethorn never learn to talk using words, struggle to develop or maintain meaningful relationships and have genuinely ritualistic/obsessional behaviour. Those on the higher functioning end of the spectrum, such as those with AS may have IQ within the average range, be verbally fluent and can be sure-footed of leading independent lives given some support.The mass of literature regarding the relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour has foc utilize on individuals of whom have a diagnosis or show indicators of Asperger syndrome. Langstrom et al (2009) explored characteristrics associated with violent offending among individuals diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorders over a 13 year period pickings breeding from swedish national registers. They lay down that criminal violence was more common among participants diagnosed with Asperger syndrome relative to participants with autistic disorder. They attributed this broker to the reasoning that those with Asperger syndrome are more likely to have unimpaired intellectual ability, better social skills. It was also concluded that those with Autistic disorder are more likely to live in supervised moves where ply or others may help to resolve conflicts or manage anger. The fact that research study examines both autistic spectrum disorder and Asperger syndrome make drawing conclusions and comparisons extremely difficult.Asperger syndrome is defined as a condition which has galore(postnominal) features of Autistic Spectrum Disorder however it is displayed in persons of average or above average intelligence. Gillberg (2002) describes features such as a tendency to engage in monologues or special interests around narrow interests, limited or inappropriate non-verbal communication and a compulsive need for routine. The term Theory of Mind has been used to describe the psychological dysfunction underlying the triad of impairments shared by all people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (Wing, 1996). Theory of mind describes the ability to be able to project oneself in the position of another and be able to appreciate their feelings, wants and wish es. This inability to empathise and put yourself in someone elses shoes means that those with Asperger syndrome, like those with other forms of Autistic Spectrum Disorder, are unable to judge the probable actions or responses of others (Browning Caulfield, 2011).Many studies support the view that the majority of those with Autistic Spectrum Disorders and Asperger syndrome are law abiding and that very few engage in outlaw(a) criminalised behaviour. The very features of AS mean that the vast majority of this section of the population are very donnish in their adherence to the law collectable to their literal thinking (Wing, 1997, Murrie et al. 2002, Myers, 2004). It may be that speculative assumptions that those with Autistic Spectrum Disorders or Asperger syndrome possess a greater propensity towards violent viciousness is generated through media reporting and both factual and fictional film, television and radio. There are relatively few people in the public eye with an Autisti c Spectrum Disorder however the reporting of rare acts of violence within the media is potentially wounding serving only to assist in the creation of inaccurate perceptions of affected individuals ( Browning Caulfield, 2011).An accurate prevalence of Asperger syndrome within the general population is yet to be established as findings between studies are varied. search has indicated the prevalence of Asperger syndrome to be between 2 and 60 per 10,000 (Gillberg 1991, Wing 1996). Murphy, (2003) inform that there is evidence that 3-4 in every(prenominal) 100 children may develop Aspergers syndrome and there is general agreement that the prevalence of Asperger syndrome is imprint. Current statistics caterd by the National Autistic Society estimate that the prevalence of all Autistic Spectrum Disorders in the UK is approximately 1% (NAS, 2008). Attempts to assess the violence and criminality rate have also been made more difficult imputable to the low prevalence and problems relat ing to gaining valid diagnosis of Aspergers Syndrome.It mustinessiness also be recognize that additional problems in this field may stem from specific difficulties. People with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Aspergers syndrome within the criminal justice system may be being misdiagnosed and being given other labels such psychosis. There may be a form of societal reluctance to link specific disorders within criminality thus meaning an under-estimation of prevalence is given. Berney (2004) also considers the idea that there is an increasing unwillingness within the UK to take prsecution unless there is a high possibility of conviction. Data may also not be taking into account large numbers of people who do not enter the criminal justice system as they are subject to diversion or do not get charged (Hawk et al. (1993).some(a) researchers have proposed that the core features of Autistic Spectrum Disorder such as abnormal development of social interaction and development may expose t hose on the spectrum to cast offending (Haskins and Silva, 2006). However this does not mean that having Autistic Spectrum Disorder enhances the likelihood of offending. Researchers have used a range of different strategies in order to study any possible association between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending.Prevalence of persons with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in the Criminal Justice SystemIn order to better understand if there is any relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour some researchers have focused on Autistic Spectrum Disorder among those who have already been or are still in the criminal justice system. Scragg and Shah (1994) considered a hypothesis that there may exist co-morbid neurological disorders in those with Asperger syndrome that may be an underlying factor of violent acts committed. Their research examined the entire male population (n=392) of Broadmoor hospital using methods such as interviewing staff and patients and screeni ng parapraxis notes. They found a prevalence rate for Asperger syndrome of 1.5% significantly exceeding the prevalence rate of 0.36% found by Elthers and Gillberg (1993) in the general population using the same diagnostic criteria.Siponmaa et al (2001) conducted a retrospective study where a much higher prevalence rate of ASD among offenders was found in Sweden. The researchers reviewed suit notes of 126 mentally disordered offenders and found that 15% had pervasive developmental disorder, 12% had pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified/atypical autism and 3% had Asperger syndrome. However these results cannot be generalised to offender populations as the sample was recruited from a rhetorical population of offenders who have a mental disorder requiring treatment and the majority had committed violent offences.Hare et al (1999) examined the prevalence of individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorders within three hospitals in the UK. They found that 67.7% of the to tal Autistic spectrum disorder population of these prisons had Asperger syndrome. The rough prevalence estimate was 1.6% supporting the hypothesis that there is an over representation of people with Autistic spectrum disorder and in particular Asperger syndrome within rhetorical hospitals in the UK. In contrast Myers (2004) found very low numbers of individuals with autistic spectrum disorders in secure forensic and specialist settings in Scotland. Through examination of the number of people with learning disabilities with or without Asperger syndrome their findings indicate a prevelance estimate of 0.93% in the prison service 0.46% in secure units and 1.39% in mental health unitsIt must be recognised that prevalence studies have typically been restricted to super specialized settings and therefrom highly selected samples such as those at Broodmoor prison and secure services (Scragg and Shah,1994). There also appears to be a overleap of research which has investigated the preva lence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder in general populations of people who had committed crime. Additionally there is also a failure to acknowledge that the offending behaviour of their research participants could potentially be attributed to other risk factors commonly associated with offending within the general population such as co-morbid mental health issues or social circumstances.There is large variability in prevalence rates across the discussed studies however there does appear to be some sort of association between autistic spectrum disorder and offending behaviour. Differences in types of diagnosis may account for some of the varying prevalence rates between different countries.Even specific studies involving highly specialised settings have found that a diagnosis of Autistic Spectrum Disorder had not been previously made for the majority making this study of general populations even more difficult. . In making a diagnosis of Autistic Spectrum Disorder this can help in the understanding of reasons that crimes may have taken place and can help to decide on appropriate methods of care and vigilance Detection of Autistic Spectrum Disorder in childhood/adolescence could provide opportunity to manage pre-disposing factors to offending behaviour. In the absence of such systems it could be argued that individuals with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder are at increased risk of growing offending behaviours.See Table 1 for an overview of the prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder found in studies within both forensic and residential district settingsPrevalence of Offending Behaviour in individuals with Autistic Spectrum DisorderWhen reviewing the research a further method of investigating the relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour has been to examine the prevalence of offending behaviour in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder. The question of whether or not a person with Autistic spectrum disorder may be more likely to offend will provide richer information around any possible association.Hippler et al, (2009), completed a study to examine criminal offending in 177 former patients of Hans Asperger. No increased rate of registered convictions was found compared to the general population suggesting that people with Aspergers syndrome are not more likely to commit offences. Mourisden et al, (2008) looked at the prevalence of offending behaviours in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder compared to typically developing controls using the Danish Criminal Register. Register data offers opportunity to analyse data from large populations in a historical, future way avoiding recall bias. Overall results found that 9% from the Autistic Spectrum Disorder group and 18% from the comparison group had convictions. This study suggests that rates of convictions are actually humiliate in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder than in the general population. The research also indicated that criminal of fences are very uncommon in childhood autism but more common in Aspergers syndrome.Allen et als (2008) study investigated the prevalence of Asperger syndrome and offending within a large geographical area. A survey methodology was used to identify adults with a recorded clinical diagnosis of Asperger syndrome in the South Wales area of the UK. The services contacted included mental health teams, local health practitioners, forensic practitioners and learning disability teams. Their results were generally not supportive of there being a significant association between Asperger syndrome and offending, attributing this to methodological problems including individuals with learning disabilities skewering the data, the focus on adults and misdiagnosis.Woodbury-Smith et al. (2006) determine that previous research had focused specifically on violent offending and suggested a need for community based research. Their reasoning was that statistical findings of research conducted within high security psychiatric or forensic settings only represented the prevalence of very serious offences therefore failing to be more object lesson of more generalised common-place criminality. They responded by conducting a study of offending by those with Asperger syndrome and Autistic Spectrum Disorders in the community. Although it must be acknowledged that the sample size was very small it was the first to look at offending patterns of individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorders in the community. Their findings found that the level of offending occurring within the Autistic Spectrum Disorder group was lower than that of the neuro-typical group.Issues with these particular studies include the difficulties that some studies have such small, unrepresentative samples that make any estimates of prevalence epidemiologically insubstantial. thus whilst these studies do not give a true picture, this limited evidence also suggests that individuals with classic autistic disorder are very unl ikely to offend and those with a diagnosis of Asperger syndrome are no more likely to offend than people in the general population.Table 1 Prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder studies within both forensic and community settingsStudyNo. of participantsPrevalence estimationGhaziuddin et al (1991) study of 132 published case studies2.27%Scragg and Shah (1994)3921.5%-2.3%Hare et al. (1999)221.6%Sipionmaa (2001)13515% diagnosed with ASDMyers (2004)0.46% in secure psychiatric units0.93% in the prison service1.39% in mental health unitsMouridson (2008)3130.89%Hippler et al (2009)177No increased prevalence compared to the general populationPredisposing Risk Factors of Autistic Spectrum Disorder that might make a person more vulnerable to offendingIn order to examine if there is any relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour it is important to investigate whether there are any innate vulnerabilities that make it more likely that a person with Autistic Spectr um Disorder will offend. It must also be recognised that general vulnerability factors as identified in criminological literature such as low IQ, poor school achievement and Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder will still all be relevant (Farrington, 2002). More general knowledge within this area will enhance both arrest programmes and forms of treatment and rehabilitation.Woodbury- Smith et al. (2006) completed an exploratory study where participants were recruited from different sources in the UK. These adult groups included 21 individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and a explanation of offending, 23 individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and no history of offending and a general population group of 23 people without Autistic Spectrum Disorder and no history of offending. Cognition areas known to be impaired in people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder such as theory of mind and emotional erudition were compared. Results showed that the Autistic Spectrum Disorder off enders showed a significantly greater impairment in the recognition of emotional expressions of fright, but no difference in theory of mind, executive function, and recognition of facial expressions of sadness. This finding indicates that this lack of ability to recognise fear in others may cause individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder to continue behaviour that is distressing to others thus possibly increasing the likelihood of offending.Langstrom et al (2009), used data from Swedish longitudinal registers for 422 individuals hospitalised with Autistic Spectrum Disorder during a thirteen year period . Their research compared those committing violent or knowledgeable activityual offences with those who did not. Their results found that violent individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder are generally male and diagnosed with Asperger syndrome rather than Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Conclusions also found that violent offending in Autistic Spectrum Disorder is related to simila r co-occurring psychopathology as found in violent individuals without Autistic Spectrum Disorder, Limitations to this study must be cautiously interpreted as the sample was based on being hospitalised and are again therefore not necessarily representative of all individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in the communityThere are very few reports that investigate the importance of co-morbid psychiatric factors when understanding if any relationship between Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour exists. Newman and Ghaziuddin (2008), reviewed 37 published cases with violent behaviour and AS in maintain to concurrent psychiatric disorders and found that 29.7% of the reviewed cases had a definite psychiatric disorder whilst 54.0% had a probable psychiatric disorder. Subsequently when offending occurs within an individual with Autistic Spectrum Disorder it is important to exclude other psychiatric conditions because these can independently influence the risk of offending, as it does in the general population.Murphys (2003) study examined in the setting of a high-security psychiatric hospital whether male patients with AS could be distinguished from patients with personality disorder or schizophrenia on the basis of admission and neuropsychological details. This study adds to the review of research on Autistic Spectrum Disorder and offending behaviour as exploratory comparisons found that patients with Asperger syndrome were less likely to have a history of alcohol or illicit substance abuse and had lower index violence rations. qualitative observations in this study suggested that whilst circumstances varied, offending behaviour tended to be associated with particular problems such as externalised position blame, difficulty understanding consequence of their actions and difficulty with prospective taking.Murphy (2006) compared in-patients with schizophrenia, personality disorder and Aspergers syndrome in Broadmoor high security psychiatric hospital. The research indicated that those with AS were less likely to have histories of substance abuse or alcohol misuse and their offences had lower violence ratings than those of other patient groups.Palermo, (2004) examined the relationship between complex developmental disorders and delinquency by analysing three adult patients with Pervasive Developmental Disorder whose admission to hospital was precipitated by criminal behaviour. The patients all shared similar difficulties including struggling to understand social cues, showing mannerisms ad prosodic oddities and all had the presence of a major psychiatric illness whilst meeting the diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome. Their findings found that the reported behaviours resulted from co-morbid psychopathology and not as a direct consequence of a developmental disorder.Howlin (2004) suggests that the innate levels of empathy may be associated in particular with violent and sexual offending. Additionally Haskins and Silva, 2006. discuss how the illegal behaviours of a person with Asperger syndrome are predominantly associated with either a deficient theory of mind or an piercing assimilation with a narrow interest. The term weak central coherence refers to the detail focused processing bolt that is proposed to characterise autism spectrum disorders (Happe and Frith, 2006). A persistent preoccupation with parts of objects is one of the diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder in current practice (DSM-IV, 1994) Subsequently it has been proposed that this weak central coherence may make it difficult for an individual with Autistic spectrum disorder to think about the consequence of their actions.To confirm factors that predispose a person to commit a particular type of crime, further large scale, longitudinal prospective studies are needed.See Table 2Table 2 Factors mediating offending in Autistic Spectrum Disorders in key studiesStudyFactors mediating offending in ASMurphy (2003)externalised misplaced bl amedifficulty understanding consequence of actionsdifficulty with prospective takingBarry-Walsh and Mullen (2004)narrow focus and preoccupation with a special interestPalermo (2004)struggling to understand social cuesCo-morbid psychopathologyLack of empathyHowlin (2004)innate levels of empathyHappe Frith (2006)weak central coherenceHaskins and Silva, (2006)deficient theory of mindAn intense preoccupation with a narrow interest.Woodbury-Smith et al. (2006)significantly greater impairment in the recognition of emotional expressions of fearNewman and Ghaziuddin (2008)Co-morbid Psychiatric factorsAllen et al (2008)Lack of concern and awarenessSocial naivetyImpulsivity and mis-interpretation of the rulesOverriding obsessionsTypes of Crime most associated with the disorderIt is difficult to ascertain the types of offending behaviour in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder due to the lack of valid epidemiologic studies. Clinical studies within the case study literature have also ex plored the hypothesised relationship between Autism and Offending behaviour. The offense type most commonly described within these studies tends to be sexual offences, arson and violent offenses. Studies of single cases and referred samples can provide indications of the types of offending which may be found in people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (Baron-Cohen, 1988, Barry-Walsh Mullen, 2004, Haskins Silva, 2006, Murrie et al. 2002, Schartz-Watts 2005).Mawson et al, (1985) case study focused on a 44 year old man cataloguing a series of strange violent behaviours including dropping a firework into a girls car, assaulting a crying baby at a railway station by putting his top over its mouth to stop the noise, following a female teacher, getting close to her at every possibility. The authors speculate that there is an association between Asperger syndrome and violent behaviour however they do not put the offences in context of the mans diagnosis and significant impairments includin g sensory, theory of mind and inability to read social situations. Palermos, (2004) case studies behaviours respectively included threatening to kill a police officer, threatening to burn down a family members house and touching a prepubescent boy at a playground.Several case reports associated with incendiarism and Asperger syndrome have appeared in the literature. Mouridsen et als, (2007) study looked at the prevalence of offending behaviours in individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder compared to typically developing controls and found that only arson statistically separated Asperger syndrome cases from the comparison group. Haskins and Silva (2006), discuss a range of particular cases highlighting specific issues that might make a person with Autistic Spectrum Disorder have heightened risk for engaging in criminal behaviour. One reviewed case history involved a young man who was accused of starting a fire in his apartment to obtain restitution money. This fire killed his yo ung daughter and nearly killed his wife. Additionally Sionmaa et al, (2001) reported that 10 (63%) of 16 crimes of Arson were perpetrated by individuals with AS. Barry-Walsh and Mullen, (2004), reported on two cases that had a history of fire-starting. Reasons for the offence of arson vary within each study however it is hypothesised that a major reason includes the narrowed fixations that some people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder may have and the lack of understanding of consequences and reasoning. It could be suggested that Arson may be more specifically related to behaviours seen in Autistic Spectrum Disorder .Epidemiological studies indicate that people with AS do commit sexual offences (Hare, 1999 Murphy 2003) but there is evidence that the rates of sex offending and child sex offences in particular are lower than in general populations ( Hare, 1999, Elvish, 2007). It has been suggested that individuals with Asperger syndrome display criminal behaviour due to their sexual pre occupations. Cases include that of a 21 year old male who had a history of theft cotton lingerie and masturbating whilst holding womens night-dresses (Chesterman Rutter, 1993) and a young male with Asperger syndrome who had a history of recurrent sexual offences including touching the privates of young women watching women in toilets and making obscene phone-calls (Milton et al, 2002).It appears that when individuals with autistic spectrum disorder do commit crimes they are less likely to involve alcohol, substance misuse and/or drugs (OBrian Bell, 2001). Additionally the offences of individuals with autistic spectrum disorder did not generally provide any direct gain to the individual. Wahlund Kristiannsson (2006) investigated 35 male offenders with diagnosis of ASD or anti-social behaviour referred for psychiatric assessment in Sweden. It was found that those with autistic spectrum disorder were less likely to be intoxicated and did not use knives or guns as frequently as the personality disorder group. It was also hypothesised that individuals with autistic spectrum disorders may offend at an earlier age than other neuro-typical offenders as difficulties in social interaction will start to be marked in early adulthood and youth resulting in a higher risk of offending behaviour.Recommendations to support individuals with ASD with Offending BehaviourThere must be recognition that a number of people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder are involved with the criminal justice system whether that be as victims, witnesses or perpetrators of crime. Professionals working within the CJS must be enlightened regarding the unique diversity that may be found within people with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in order to improve the likelihood that these individuals will be treated more appropriately. Tiffin Nadkarni (2010) discuss how specialised assessments can identify risk factors associated with violent behaviour even if social and communication problems consistent with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder are present. However there is recognition that these tools compliment but do not knock back structured clinical assessment. Subsequently a formulation of risk that recognises complexity but accepts limitations enables useful wariness plans to be made.The treatment of vulnerable groups within the criminal justice system has been focused on within specific research and it must be recognised that the process of arrest, questioning and trial may be more difficult for a person with Asperger syndrome then others. Difficulties may include misinterpreting what they hear, being unable to function effectively in unpractised, unfamiliar environments and using words without fully understanding their meaning (Mayes, 2003, Barry-Walsh and Mullen, 2004) Subsequently these difficulties may be considered to be the individual being un